stem cell research thesis statement

Embryonic Stem Cell Research An Ethical Dilemma

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Introduction

In November 1998, two teams of U.S. scientists confirmed successful isolation and growth of stems cells obtained from human fetuses and embryos. Since then, research that utilizes human embryonic cells has been a widely debated, controversial ethical issue. Human embryonic cells possess the ability to become stem cells, which are used in medical research due to two significant features. First, they are unspecialized cells, meaning they can undergo cell division and renew themselves even with long periods of inactivity. Secondly, stem cells are pluripotent, with the propensity to be induced to become specified tissue or any “organ-specific cells with special functions” depending on exposure to experimental or physiologic conditions, as well as undergo cell division and become cell tissue for different organs.

The origin of stem cells themselves encapsulates the controversy: embryonic stem cells, originate from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst, a 5-day pre-implantation embryo. The principal argument for embryonic stem cell research is the potential benefit of using human embryonic cells to examine or treat diseases as opposed to somatic (adult) stem cells. Thus, advocates believe embryonic stem cell research may aid in developing new, more efficient treatments for severe diseases and ease the pain and suffering of numerous people. However, those that are against embryonic stem cell research believe that the possibility of scientific benefits of research do not outweigh the immoral action of tampering with the natural progression of a fetal development and interfering with the human embryo’s right to live. In light of these two opposing views, should embryonic stem cells be used in research? It is not ethically permissible to destroy human embryonic life for medical progress.

Personhood and the Scientific Questionability of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

The ethics behind embryonic stem cell research are controversial because the criteria of ‘personhood’ is “notoriously unclear.” Personhood is defined as the status of being a person, entitled to “moral rights and legal protections” that are higher than living things that are not classified as persons. Thus, this issue touches on existential questions such as: When does life begin? and What is the moral status that an embryo possesses? There is a debate on when exactly life begins in embryonic development and when the individual receives moral status. For example, some may ascribe life starting from the moment of fertilization, others may do so after implantation or the beginning of organ function. However, since the “zygote is genetically identical to the embryo,” which is also genetically identical to the fetus, and, by extension, identical to the baby, inquiring the beginning of personhood can lead to an occurrence of the Sorites paradox, also acknowledged as “the paradox of the heap.”

The paradox of the heap arises from vague predicates in philosophy. If there is a heap of sand and a grain is taken away from that heap one by one, at what point will it no longer be considered a heap – what classifies it as a heap? The definition of life is similarly arbitrary. When, in the development of a human being, is an embryo considered a person with moral standing? The complexity of the ethics of embryonic stem cell research, like the Sorites paradox, demonstrates there is no single, correct way to approach a problem; thus, there may be multiple different solutions that are acceptable. Whereas the definition of personhood cannot be completely resolved on a scientific basis, it serves a central role in the religious, political, and ethical differences within the field of embryonic stem cell research. Some ethicists attempt to determine what or who is a person by “setting boundaries” (Baldwin & Capstick, 2007).

Utilizing a functionalist approach, supporters of embryonic stem cell research argue that to qualify as a person, the individual must possess several indicators of personhood, including capacity, self-awareness, a sense of time, curiosity, and neo-cortical function. Proponents argue that a human embryo lacks these criteria, thereby is not considered a person and thus, does not have life and cannot have a moral status. Supporters of stem cell research believe a fertilized egg is just a part of another person’s body until the cell mass can survive on its own as a viable human. They further support their argument by noting that stem cell research uses embryonic tissue before its implantation into the uterine wall. Researchers invent the term “pre-embryo” to distinguish a pre-implantation state in which the developing cell mass does not have the full respects of an embryo in later stages of embryogenesis to further support embryonic stem cell research. Based on this reductionist view of life and personhood, utilitarian advocates argue that the result of the destruction of human embryos to harvest stem cells does not extinguish a life. Further, scientists state that any harm done is outweighed by the potential alleviation of the suffering enduring by tremendous numbers of people with varying diseases. This type of reasoning, known as Bentham’s Hedonic (moral) calculus, suggests that the potential good of treating or researching new cures for ailments such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, certain cancers, etc. outweighs any costs and alleviate the suffering of persons with those aliments. Thus, the end goal of stem cell use justifies sacrificing human embryos to produce stem cells, even though expending life is tantamount to murder. Opponents of embryonic stem cell research would equate the actions done to destroy the embryos as killing. Killing, defined as depriving their victims of life, will therefore reduce their victims to mere means to their own ends. Therefore, this argument touches on the question: if through the actions of embryotic stem cell research is “morally indistinguishable from murder?” (Outka, 2013). The prohibition of murder extends to human fetuses and embryos considering they are potential human beings. And, because both are innocent, a fetus being aborted and an embryo being disaggregated are direct actions with the intention of killing. Violating the prohibition of murder is considered an intolerable end. We should not justify this evil even if it achieves good. Under the deontological approach, “whether a situation is good or bad depends on whether the action that brought it about was right or wrong,” hence the ends do not justify the means. Therefore, under this feeble utilitarian approach, stem cell research proceeds at the expense of human life than at the expense of personhood.

One can reject the asserted utilitarian approach to stem cell research as a reductionist view of life because the argument fails to raise ethical concerns regarding the destruction embryonic life for the possibility of developing treatments to end certain diseases. The utilitarian approach chooses potential benefits of stem cell research over the physical lives of embryos without regard to the rights an embryo possesses. Advocates of embryonic stem cell research claim this will cure diseases but there is a gap in literature that confirms how many diseases these cells can actually cure or treat, what diseases, and how many people will actually benefit. Thus, killing human embryos for the potentiality of benefiting sick people is not ethically not ethically permissible.

Where the argument of personhood is concerned, the development from a fertilized egg (embryo) to a baby is a continuous process. Any effort to determine when personhood begins is arbitrary. If a newborn baby is a human, then surely a fetus just before birth is a human; and, if we extend a few moments before that point, we would still have a human, and so on all the way back to the embryo and finally to the zygote. Although an embryo does not possess the physiognomies of a person, it will nonetheless become a person and must be granted the respect and dignity of a person. Thus, embryotic stem cell research violates the Principle of “Full Human Potential,” which states: “Every human being […] deserves to be valued according to the full level of human development, not according to the level of development currently achieved.” As technology advances, viability outside the womb inches ever closer to the point of inception, making the efforts to identify where life begins after fertilization ineffectual. To complicate matters, as each technological innovation arrives, stem-cell scientists will have to re-define the start of life as many times as there are new technological developments, an exhausting and never-ending process that would ultimately lead us back to moment of fertilization. Because an embryo possesses all the necessary genetic information to develop into a human being, we must categorically state that life begins at the moment of conception. There is a gap in literature that deters the formation of a clear, non-arbitrary indication of personhood between conception and adulthood. Considering the lack of a general consensus of when personhood begins, an embryo should be referred to as a person and as morally equivalent to a fully developed human being.

Having concluded that a human embryo has the moral equivalent of a fully-fledged human being, this field of research clearly violates the amiable rights of personhood, and in doing so discriminates against pre-born persons. Dr. Eckman asserts that “every human being has a right to be protected from discrimination.” Thus, every human, and by extension every embryo, has the right to life and should not be discriminated against their for “developmental immaturity.” Therefore, the field of embryonic stem cell research infringes upon the rights and moral status of human embryos.

Principle of Beneficence in Embryonic Stem Cell Research

The destruction of human embryos for research is not ethically permissible because the practice violates the principle of beneficence depicted in the Belmont Report, which outlines the basic ethical principles and guidelines owed to human subjects involved in research. Stem cell researchers demonstrate a lack of respect for the autonomy and welfare of the human embryos sacrificed in stem cell research.

While supporters of embryonic stem cell research under the utilitarian approach argue the potential benefits of the research, the utilitarian argument however violates the autonomy of the embryo and its human rights, as well as the autonomy of the embryo donors and those that are Pro-Life. Though utilitarian supporters argue on the basis of rights, they exclusively refer to the rights of sick individuals. However, they categorically ignore the rights of embryos that they destroy to obtain potential disease curing stem cells. Since an embryo is regarded as a human being with morally obligated rights, the Principle of Beneficence is violated, and the autonomy and welfare of the embryo is not respected due to the destruction of an embryo in stem cell research. Killing embryos to obtain stem cells for research fails to treat embryos as ends in an of themselves. Yet, every human ought to be regarded as autonomous with rights that are equal to every other human being. Thus, the welfare of the embryo is sacrificed due to lack of consent from the subject.

The Principle of Beneficence is violated when protecting the reproductive interests of women in infertility treatment, who are dependent on the donations of embryos to end their infertility. Due to embryonic stem cell research, these patients’ “prospects of reproductive success may be compromised” because there are fewer embryos accessible for reproductive purposes. The number of embryos necessary to become fully developed and undergo embryonic stem cell research will immensely surpass the number of available frozen embryos in fertility clinic, which also contributes to the lack of embryos available for women struggling with infertility. Therefore, the basis of this research violates women’s reproductive autonomy, thus violating the Principle of Beneficence.

It is also significant to consider the autonomy and welfare of the persons involved. The autonomous choice to donate embryos to research necessitates a fully informed, voluntary sanction of the patient(s), which poses difficulty due to the complexity of the human embryonic stem cell research. To use embryos in research, there must be a consensus of agreement from the mother and father whose egg and sperm produced the embryo. Thus, there has to be a clear indication between the partners who has the authority or custody of the embryos, as well as any “third party donors” of gametes that could have been used to produce the embryo because these parties’ intentions for those gametes may solely have been for reproductive measures only. Because the researchers holding “dispositional authority” over the embryos may exchange cell lines and its derivatives (i.e., genetic material and information) with other researchers, they may misalign interests with the persons whose gametes are encompassed within the embryo. This mismatch of intent raises complications in confidentiality and autonomy.

Lastly, more ethical complications arise in the research of embryonic stem cells because of the existence viable alternatives that to not destroy human embryos. Embryonic stem cells themselves pose as a higher health risk than adult stem cells. Embryonic stem cells have a higher risk of causing tumor development in the patient’s body once the cells are implanted due to their abilities to proliferate and differentiate. Embryonic stem cells also have a high risk of immunorejection, where a patient’s immune system rejects the stem cells. Since the embryonic stem cells are derived from embryos that underwent in vitro fertilization, when implanted in the body, the stem cell’s marker molecules will not be recognized by the patient’s body, resulting in the destruction of the stem cells as a defensive response to protect the body (Cahill, 2002). With knowledge of embryonic stem cells having higher complications than the viable adult stem cells continued use of embryonic stem cells violates the Principle of Beneficence not only for the embryos but for the health and safety of the patients treated with stem cells. Several adult stem cell lines (“undifferentiated cells found throughout the body”) exist and are widely used cell research. The use of adult stem cells represents research that does not treat human beings as means to themselves, thus, complying with the Principle of Beneficence. This preferable alternative considers the moral obligation to discover treatments, and cures for life threating diseases while avoiding embryo destruction.

It is not ethically permissible to destroy human embryonic life for medical progress due to the violations of personhood and human research tenets outlined in the Belmont Report. It is significant to understand the ethical implications of this research in order to respect the autonomy, welfare, beneficence, and basic humanity afforded to all parties involved. Although embryonic stem cell research can potentially provide new medical advancements to those in need, the harms outweigh the potential, yet ill-defined benefits. There are adult stem cell alternatives with equivalent viability that avoid sacrificing embryos. As society further progresses, humans must be cautious of compromising moral principles that human beings are naturally entitled to for scientific advancements. There are ethical boundaries that are crossed when natural processes of life are altered or manipulated. Though there are potential benefits to stem cell research, these actions are morally and ethically questionable. Thus, it is significant to uphold ethical standards when practicing research to protect the value of human life.

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Curzer, Howard. “The Ethics Of Embryonic Stem Cell Research.” The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 29, no. 5 (October 1, 2004): 533–62. doi:10.1080/03605310490514225.

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Hubbard, James. “Embryonic Stem-Cell Research: Experts Debate Pros and Cons.” The Survival Doctor , 2013. http://thesurvivaldoctor.com/2013/02/14/doctors-debate-embryonic-stem-cell-research-pros-and-cons/ .

Koch, Valerie Gutmann, Beth E. Roxland, Barbara Pohl, and Sarah K. Keech. “Contemporary Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research.” In Stem Cells Handbook , 29–37. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2013. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7696-2_2.

Cahill, Lisa Sowle. "Holland, Suzanne, Karen Lebacqz, and Laurie Zoloth, Eds. The Human Embryonic Stem Cell Debate: Science, Ethics, and Public Policy." The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly 2, no. 3 (2002): 559-62. doi:10.5840/ncbq20022344.

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Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell.

The term stem cell was coined by Theodor Boveri and Valentin Haecker in late 19th century. Pioneering works in theory of blood stem cell were conducted in the beginning of 20th century by Artur Pappenheim, Alexander Maximow, Franz Ernst Christian Neumann. The first therapy using stem cells was a bone marrow transplant performed by French oncologist Georges Mathé in 1958 on five workers at the Vinča Nuclear Institute in Yugoslavia who had been affected by a criticality accident. The workers all survived.

Self-renewal, Potency, Identification

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Argumentative Essay Example: Stem Cell Research

Argumentative essay stem cells

Stem cell research is a debatable topic for many modern scientists because it raises ethical and moral questions and dilemmas within the scientific community. Medical science has made a great step toward the new approaches in medicine and innovative solutions for terminal illnesses. Many scientists are not sure about the end results of the numerous studies conducted on the subject; the stem cells misuse based on wrong or incorrect concepts’ definition spurred many of the debates on the subject.

Argumentative essay thesis statement:

despite harsh criticism of the wide stem cell usage, the main advantage of stem-cell research is that doctors will be able to target the initial causes of a disease rather than simply treat a disease condition; the advantages of the research for healthcare professionals are to cure millions of patients around the world.

Argumentative essay examples

Arguments for stem cell research .

There are different philosophical theories accompanying stem cell studies, which aim to interpret and define the objects of embryonic material used in the research.

The scientific discovery addresses such concepts as “reality” and “real”, “dissociations” and “embryonic germ cells”.

These definitions would help researchers and the state to come to agreement and clearly understand benefits and threats of this research. The author also explains that the main advantages are that stem-cell material holds medical benefits which could improve human health. These include treatments for cancer, hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, etc.

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Arguments against stem cell research .

Opposition to embryo research and use became vehement in 1999 when the prospect of stem-cell study appeared. It can develop into all the cells and tissues of the human body and divide many times. Opponents state that lives might be saved and suffering avoided if the research could be allowed to proceed with federal support. Unethical behavior and maltreatment are the main arguments against stem-cell research.

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Ethical and moral dilemma.

Ethical and moral arguments put limits on the scientific developments and, often, adversely affect science. Scientists believe that stem-cell studies might be carried out in ways that would not require the use and destruction of embryos; the use of adult stem cells, for instance, could be an alternative to stem cells. A theoretical way is open to the use of those cells not only for embryogenesis research and gene research, but for important therapeutic purposes.

When analyzing stem cell research, one has to note that there are many different research strategies currently available. The conventional model of treatment, even if rarely articulated in any precise way, is to undertake every effort possible to save life. The use of these cells for medical research presents an ethical double-edged sword in that the potential value to human life is countered by philosophical questions about the destruction of human life.

Any proposed solution to this controversy is surely to conflict with the strongly held moral and religious convictions of one group or another. The fundamental issue of the beginning of human life appears to have created an unwarranted tension between science and religion when it comes to embryonic research.

Advantages of using stem cells

The main benefit of stem cells is the ability to replace diseased or damaged cells in virtually every tissue of the body. At the same time, in today’s technologically advanced world there are many ethical dilemmas that are beginning to emerge.

There is the ethical dilemma of using in vitro fertilization (IVF) along with pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) and human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing to create a human life that can be a perfect organ and tissue donor to an ill sibling.

The strengths and weaknesses of this issue are discussed and evaluated in the following sections.

The process of stem cells is such that many embryos are created and then tested to determine if an embryo has a specific genetic disorder. This process is legal in the United States, although in some parts of the world this practice is banned; it is strictly regulated in many countries as well. As technology has advanced, the uses of this process have changed. Not only are parents able to test for specific diseases, but with the HLA typing they are able to create an embryo that will be an identical match to an older sibling who is afflicted with a life threatening disease. The new embryo is designed to be able to donate cord blood and bone marrow.

Arguments FOR stem cells

Individuals arguing FOR creating savior siblings state that stem cell research is a safe and effective way to ensure that an embryo will not have any genetic disorders; they add that HLA tissue typing ensures that the savior sibling will be a genetic match to the existing ill child. Supporters argue that the benefits of the procedure far outweigh the risks to the mother, the embryo, and the existing child.

Creating embryos just to be destroyed would be ethical, but if the embryo that can be specifically created could save the life of an existing child then the net worth of the destroyed embryos is much less than the benefits of creating a savior sibling. The physical pain experienced by a savoir sibling is little to none, because the cells that are harvested come from the placenta and the umbilical cord.

Argumentative essay stem cells conclusion

There are several issues that must be evaluated to better understand the matter of stem cell research controversy. The value of a human life is at stake. A sick patient will die without a donor and if all other resources are exhausted, then it seems that, for the greater good, another life should be created to help save an existing life. Respect for human life would be valued on this side. Respect for the life that already exists and respect for the life that will be created.

Stem cell study will safe lives of patients with the help of genetic reprogramming. There are some arguments against saving the life of an individual. What limits should be placed on performing such type of gene research? The way in which science moves forward regarding how the researchers choose to save the life of a person is the only key question that remains.

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Stem Cell Research Persuasive Essay

Any embryonic stem cell research essay needs to carefully weigh up the pros and cons, as well as the ethics involved. In a lot of ways, where you fall on stem cell research will be indicative of what you think about many different topics such as when you feel life begins, the justice and morality of using human cells to cure diseases, and how you interpret your own religious beliefs. Your audience, you may find, could have very different views from you on these issues, so be sure you’re not just in an echo chamber and ignoring those who differ from you.

Begin your introduction with a hook that captures your reader and sets expectations for who you want your audience to ideally be. Do you want to persuade people who might be misinformed on the subject, or do you want to sway people to your side with an emotive anecdote? Then go on to set up your thesis statement, which is the single most important sentence in a persuasive essay, and the foundation of everything you will be writing.

Introduction examples

Pro: Barack Obama says of stem cell research that “…we have been given the capacity and will to pursue this research and the humanity and conscience to do so responsibly.” He’s not the only one who feels that stem cell research holds vital importance for curing diseases and ensuring that children are born into a safer, healthier world.

Con: Stem cells harvested from foetuses are just not necessary to have the medical research we need to move forward in curing disease and human ailments. Umbilical cord blood, plus research from adult stem cells, provide all the useful information we could require for research.

Moving forward into the body of your essay, it might be relevant to touch on similar debates for comparison, like the one around cloning, or provide a sample of a debate between the two opposing sides. Your argument for or against could probably use some quotes from experts, or perhaps relevant verses from the holy book of your choice. Take the time to draw up an outline, as this will help you set the structure up.

Your conclusion is the summation of everything you’ve argued in the body of your essay, so make sure you briefly give a summary of your most important points. Then move on to call your readers to action. Don’t let the persuasive essay end without doing this, as this what the whole essay has been building up to.

Conclusion examples

Pro: Pluripotent stem cells, such as those found in embryonic stem cells, hold the key to so much. When future generations look back on what we’re accomplishing here, they will definitely feel the use of embryonic stem cells were worth it. Give your children and grandchildren a future by supporting stem cell research today!

Con: When it comes to ethics, we can’t compromise, and using embryonic stem cells is a step too far. Every disease cured due to stem cell research is bought with blood as surely as the research done during the Holocaust was. Don’t let this nightmare go on any longer! Write to your representative today!

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President George W. Bush's Announcement on Stem Cells, 9 August 2001

On 9 August 2001, US President George W. Bush gave an eleven-minute speech from his ranch in Crawford, Texas, on the ethics and fate of US federal funding for stem cell research. The speech is available at http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov /news/releases/2001/08/20010809-2.html . Bush also announced the creation of a special council to oversee stem cell research. In the speech President Bush acknowledged the importance of issues surrounding stem cell research to many Americans, presented different arguments in favor of and opposing embryonic stem cell research , and explained his decision to limit but not completely eliminate potential federal funding for embryonic stem cell (ESC) research. The speech was important to embryology as a field because it determined the US federal government’s policy on funding human ESC research for the eight years of George W. Bush’s administration.

Bush first spoke of the importance of the stem cell debate to American citizens and provided background information on embryonic stem cell research . He then outlined the central questions he said determine whether embryonic stem cell research can be done in concert with good ethics. The rest of the speech indirectly addressed these questions as the President invoked literature and traditional values, attempted to establish his empathetic credibility with those who might support embryonic stem cell research for personal reasons, and explained the compromise he had selected. Bush closed with his announcement of the creation of a presidential council to monitor stem cell research, provide guidance for himself and others, and generate thoughtful discussion among Americans in the midst of biomedical advances and ethical controversy.

The speech began with a description of stem cell research and the debate surrounding it. It pointed to ethical concerns pondered by scientists and by parents who want to help their children, or who want to have children; recognized widespread religious debate; and noted that there is disagreement even between people sharing the same faith. Bush described the current state of stem cell research by identifying the source of embryos preferred by scientists, namely excess embryos left over after couples attempt in vitro fertilization (IVF). Some of these extra embryos are frozen, he said, some implanted in mothers, and some donated to science for research.

Bush did not shrink from describing the potential benefits that research on IVF embryos might contribute, saying that preliminary research on ESCs had shown that the cells might be able to help develop treatment for juvenile diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and spinal cord injuries. Bush also commented that other stem cells can be taken from adult cells, umbilical cord blood, and placentas, and that patients are already receiving treatments based on stem cells from these sources. He admitted, however, that many scientists were convinced that ESCs had the most potential because of their pluripotency , their potential to develop into all of the tissues in the body.

The US, said Bush, has a history of leading the world not only in scientific advancement, but also in upholding high ethical standards, and he noted the ethical concerns associated with the destruction of genetically unique human embryos. In considering these ethical concerns, Bush continued, two key ethical questions must be addressed. First, do embryos qualify as human life, and second, if embryos are going to be destroyed anyway why shouldn’t they be used for the greater good?

Bush touched on arguments on both sides of these questions, giving the final word to arguments opposed to ESC research in response to each question. Regarding the first question, he said, one scientist had told him that a five-day-old cluster is not even a real embryo, but is actually a pre-embryo, not deserving to be called life because it cannot develop on its own. On the other hand, an ethicist with whom Bush had spoken argued that because all human life has humble beginnings, embryos deserve protection as what the ethicist referred to as the seeds of the next generation.

In terms of the second question—is it wasteful to forego research on ESCs from extra IVF embryos that are going be destroyed otherwise?—Bush noted the opposing viewpoint, that the term “excess life” is self-contradicting, that there can be no such a thing as excess life, and therefore the embryos cannot be treated as an expendable resource for research.

While Bush’s speech provided possible answers to his questions from different perspectives, he did not personally and directly answer the questions. Rather, they are answered implicitly throughout the rest of his speech. Issues surrounding stem cell research, he said, exist at a “moral intersection” between a desire to protect human life and a desire to save and improve people’s lives. It is important to note that the desire to protect human life as cited by Bush would not be an issue if some did not think embryos qualify as a type of human life. Illustrating this desire to protect human life, Bush continued by invoking literature, claiming that we’ve already arrived at Aldous Huxley’s concept of the Brave New World in terms of our capability to create human life in test tubes, just as scientists do in the hatcheries of Huxley’s dystopian future. Bush expressed his deep discomfort with the fact that scientists have already generated embryos in test tubes for the purpose of experimenting on them.

His discussion then invoked traditional values in a more direct way to demonstrate concern for protecting life, saying that the very first stem cell researcher had been reluctant to conduct research because he feared his work would be used to clone humans . Although Bush did not identity this researcher in his talk, he was referring to James Thomson , the first researcher to extract human ESCs from an embryo and, in 1998, to create a pluripotent human stem cell culture. Bush reminded listeners that a sheep had already been cloned ( Dolly the cloned sheep was born in 1997), and he speculated that scientists might try to clone extra copies of people so healthy organs and other tissues could be extracted on a whim. A majority of Americans, claimed Bush, oppose human cloning , although at no point in the speech did he directly say that ESC research would lead to cloning , or consider how it might do so.

After describing these concerns with creating life for research, President Bush examined the morality of conducting research on embryos that would be destroyed anyway. He addressed this second question indirectly by saying that “even the most noble ends do not justify any means.” Bush next attempted to establish some empathetic credibility with those who might doubt that his understanding of the potential of ESC research to ease suffering. He mentioned friends who parent children with juvenile diabetes, correspondence with Nancy Reagan detailing President Reagan’s struggle with Alzheimer’s, and the pain he felt at losing his sister to leukemia when he was seven.

These statements were intended, however, to show comprehension of the ramifications of restricting federal funding for research on embryos, not support for funding research on human embryos. Here Bush finally stated his belief that life is a “sacred gift from our Creator,” and that he feels compelled to promote protection of and respect for life. Not wanting to completely eliminate potential benefits that could arise from research, he enjoined scientists to proceed with caution. He then outlined a compromise intended to allow for scientific advances without sponsoring the crossing of ethical lines with tax dollars.

To advance research, Bush declared his intent to allow federal funding for what he claimed were more than sixty genetically diverse stem cell lines that had already been created by destroying embryos. In the interest of ethical caution, he said, he would not allow tax dollars to support the creation of new ESC lines from extra IVF embryos since it would sponsor making the “life and death decision” for an embryo with taxpayer dollars. An article in an issue of Science published the week following Bush’s speech reported a generally positive initial response to the decision, but speculated about where all sixty cell lines might be, noting that the National Institutes of Health (NIH) had probably learned about previously secret ESC lines by guaranteeing confidentiality in conversations with research groups. The article also mentions looser guidelines relating to informed consent , an issue that later became a topic of debate as some scientists argued that due to a lack of informed consent , researchers could not ethically work with the stem cell lines Bush had approved for research.

The speech closed with a declaration of his belief that research on stem cells taken from umbilical cords, placentas, adult stem cells , and animal stem cells could produce useful results. He pledged $250 million to such research and then promised to create a council to monitor stem cell research, examine ethical issues surrounding scientific innovation, and recommend ethical research guidelines. The council became the President’s Council on Bioethics. The first chair, Leon Kass, was chosen by President Bush and led the council until 2005. In that time Kass oversaw the publication of a document on monitoring stem cell research as well as the release of a white paper, “Alternative Sources of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells.”

Bush’s decision to limit federal funding that might have been used by scientists to study ESCs derived from extra IVF embryos was highly controversial. It was also praised in different circles for placating the ethical concerns of many while still offering scientists avenues for research. Many of Bush’s reasons for opposing human ESC research seemed to originate in literature, history, personal convictions, and consideration of the opinion of some American citizens. Because of this, recent advances in ESC research have not explicitly debunked his arguments, nor are they likely to do so, due to the nature of his rhetoric. However, the ethical legitimacy of the sixty lines he did approve for research sponsored by federal funding has since been questioned because of issues relating to informed consent , primarily involving whether the biological parents of the IVF embryos in question knew that their embryos had been taken for research purposes.

The appointment of Kass, who had once opposed even in vitro fertilization and remains an outspoken critic of human cloning and unrestricted research on embryos, to lead the President’s Council on Bioethics was also seen as an unfair decision by many scientists and political commentators. However, Bush stuck to his decision, which was overshadowed a month later by the attack on the World Trade Center on 11 September 2001. It was overturned by next US president, Barack Obama , on 9 March 2009, when—while emphasizing that he still opposed human cloning—Obama officially removed the restrictions placed by President Bush on federal funding for research on embryos.

George W. Bush White House Archives. “President Discusses Stem Cell Research.” The White House. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/08/20010809-2.html (Accessed April 26, 2010).
Green, Ronald M. “The Stem Cell Debate.” Nova Online. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/miracle/stemcells.html (Accessed April 26, 2010).
Kolata, Gina. “Man Who Helped Start Stem Cell War May End It.” New York Times , November 22, 2007, A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/22/science/22stem.html?_r=1 (Accessed April 26, 2010).
Lacayo, Richard. “How Bush Got There.” Time , August 12, 2001. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,170839-1,00.html (Accessed April 26, 2010).
Lardner Jr., George, and Lois Romano. “Tragedy Created Bush Mother-Son Bond.” Washington Post , July 26, 1999, A1. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/campaigns/wh2000/stories/bush072699.htm (Accessed May 6, 2010).
Streiffer, Robert. “Informed Consent and Federal Funding for Stem Cell Research.” Hastings Center Report 38 (2008): 40–47.
The 44th President: First 100 Days. “Obama Ends Stem Cell Research Ban.” CBS New Politics and Associated Press, March 9, 2009. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/03/09/politics/100days/domesticissues/main4853385.shtml (Accessed May 6, 2010).
Vogel, Gretchen, Constance Holden, and Pallava Bagla. “Bush Squeezes Between the Lines on Stem Cells.” Science 293 (2001): 1242–45.

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