hypothesis the article

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Steps & Examples

How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Steps & Examples

Published on May 6, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023.

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection .

Example: Hypothesis

Daily apple consumption leads to fewer doctor’s visits.

Table of contents

What is a hypothesis, developing a hypothesis (with example), hypothesis examples, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about writing hypotheses.

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.

A hypothesis is not just a guess – it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).

Variables in hypotheses

Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more types of variables .

• An independent variable is something the researcher changes or controls.
• A dependent variable is something the researcher observes and measures.

If there are any control variables , extraneous variables , or confounding variables , be sure to jot those down as you go to minimize the chances that research bias  will affect your results.

In this example, the independent variable is exposure to the sun – the assumed cause . The dependent variable is the level of happiness – the assumed effect .

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Step 1. Ask a question

Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.

Step 2. Do some preliminary research

Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what your research will find.

At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to ensure that you’re embarking on a relevant topic . This can also help you identify which variables you will study and what you think the relationships are between them. Sometimes, you’ll have to operationalize more complex constructs.

Step 3. Formulate your hypothesis

Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.

4. Refine your hypothesis

You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain:

• The relevant variables
• The specific group being studied
• The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis

5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in  if…then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.

In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.

If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find between them.

6. Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing , you will also have to write a null hypothesis . The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H 0 , while the alternative hypothesis is H 1 or H a .

• H 0 : The number of lectures attended by first-year students has no effect on their final exam scores.
• H 1 : The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their final exam scores.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

A hypothesis is not just a guess — it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).

Null and alternative hypotheses are used in statistical hypothesis testing . The null hypothesis of a test always predicts no effect or no relationship between variables, while the alternative hypothesis states your research prediction of an effect or relationship.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, August 15). How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Steps & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 28, 2023, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/hypothesis/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, construct validity | definition, types, & examples, what is a conceptual framework | tips & examples, operationalization | a guide with examples, pros & cons, what is your plagiarism score.

How To: Use Articles for Research: Introduction: Hypothesis/Thesis

• What's a Scholarly Journal?
• Reading the Citation
• Authors' Credentials
• Introduction: Hypothesis/Thesis
• Literature Review
• Research Method
• Results/Data
• Discussion/Conclusions

Hypothesis or Thesis

The first few paragraphs of a journal article serve to introduce the topic, to provide the author's hypothesis or thesis, and to indicate why the research was done.  A thesis or hypothesis is not always clearly labled; you may need to read through the introductory paragraphs to determine what the authors are proposing.

• << Previous: Abstract
• Next: Literature Review >>
• Last Updated: Jan 29, 2020 2:27 PM
• URL: https://libguides.cayuga-cc.edu/1ST-PRIORITY/articles

If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website.

If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked.

To log in and use all the features of Khan Academy, please enable JavaScript in your browser.

Biology library

Course: biology library   >   unit 1, the scientific method.

• Controlled experiments
• The scientific method and experimental design

Introduction

• Make an observation.
• Ask a question.
• Form a hypothesis , or testable explanation.
• Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
• Test the prediction.
• Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions.

Scientific method example: Failure to toast

1. make an observation..

• Observation: the toaster won't toast.

2. Ask a question.

• Question: Why won't my toaster toast?

3. Propose a hypothesis.

• Hypothesis: Maybe the outlet is broken.

4. Make predictions.

• Prediction: If I plug the toaster into a different outlet, then it will toast the bread.

5. Test the predictions.

• Test of prediction: Plug the toaster into a different outlet and try again.
• If the toaster does toast, then the hypothesis is supported—likely correct.
• If the toaster doesn't toast, then the hypothesis is not supported—likely wrong.

6. Iterate.

• Iteration time!
• If the hypothesis was supported, we might do additional tests to confirm it, or revise it to be more specific. For instance, we might investigate why the outlet is broken.
• If the hypothesis was not supported, we would come up with a new hypothesis. For instance, the next hypothesis might be that there's a broken wire in the toaster.

Want to join the conversation?

• Upvote Button opens signup modal
• Downvote Button opens signup modal
• Flag Button opens signup modal

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• Browse Titles

NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-.

StatPearls [Internet].

Hypothesis testing, p values, confidence intervals, and significance.

Jacob Shreffler ; Martin R. Huecker .

Affiliations

Last Update: March 13, 2023 .

• Definition/Introduction

Medical providers often rely on evidence-based medicine to guide decision-making in practice. Often a research hypothesis is tested with results provided, typically with p values, confidence intervals, or both. Additionally, statistical or research significance is estimated or determined by the investigators. Unfortunately, healthcare providers may have different comfort levels in interpreting these findings, which may affect the adequate application of the data.

• Issues of Concern

Without a foundational understanding of hypothesis testing, p values, confidence intervals, and the difference between statistical and clinical significance, it may affect healthcare providers' ability to make clinical decisions without relying purely on the research investigators deemed level of significance. Therefore, an overview of these concepts is provided to allow medical professionals to use their expertise to determine if results are reported sufficiently and if the study outcomes are clinically appropriate to be applied in healthcare practice.

Hypothesis Testing

Investigators conducting studies need research questions and hypotheses to guide analyses. Starting with broad research questions (RQs), investigators then identify a gap in current clinical practice or research. Any research problem or statement is grounded in a better understanding of relationships between two or more variables. For this article, we will use the following research question example:

Research Question: Is Drug 23 an effective treatment for Disease A?

Research questions do not directly imply specific guesses or predictions; we must formulate research hypotheses. A hypothesis is a predetermined declaration regarding the research question in which the investigator(s) makes a precise, educated guess about a study outcome. This is sometimes called the alternative hypothesis and ultimately allows the researcher to take a stance based on experience or insight from medical literature. An example of a hypothesis is below.

Research Hypothesis: Drug 23 will significantly reduce symptoms associated with Disease A compared to Drug 22.

The null hypothesis states that there is no statistical difference between groups based on the stated research hypothesis.

Researchers should be aware of journal recommendations when considering how to report p values, and manuscripts should remain internally consistent.

Regarding p values, as the number of individuals enrolled in a study (the sample size) increases, the likelihood of finding a statistically significant effect increases. With very large sample sizes, the p-value can be very low significant differences in the reduction of symptoms for Disease A between Drug 23 and Drug 22. The null hypothesis is deemed true until a study presents significant data to support rejecting the null hypothesis. Based on the results, the investigators will either reject the null hypothesis (if they found significant differences or associations) or fail to reject the null hypothesis (they could not provide proof that there were significant differences or associations).

To test a hypothesis, researchers obtain data on a representative sample to determine whether to reject or fail to reject a null hypothesis. In most research studies, it is not feasible to obtain data for an entire population. Using a sampling procedure allows for statistical inference, though this involves a certain possibility of error. [1]  When determining whether to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis, mistakes can be made: Type I and Type II errors. Though it is impossible to ensure that these errors have not occurred, researchers should limit the possibilities of these faults. [2]

Significance

Significance is a term to describe the substantive importance of medical research. Statistical significance is the likelihood of results due to chance. [3]  Healthcare providers should always delineate statistical significance from clinical significance, a common error when reviewing biomedical research. [4]  When conceptualizing findings reported as either significant or not significant, healthcare providers should not simply accept researchers' results or conclusions without considering the clinical significance. Healthcare professionals should consider the clinical importance of findings and understand both p values and confidence intervals so they do not have to rely on the researchers to determine the level of significance. [5]  One criterion often used to determine statistical significance is the utilization of p values.

P values are used in research to determine whether the sample estimate is significantly different from a hypothesized value. The p-value is the probability that the observed effect within the study would have occurred by chance if, in reality, there was no true effect. Conventionally, data yielding a p<0.05 or p<0.01 is considered statistically significant. While some have debated that the 0.05 level should be lowered, it is still universally practiced. [6]  Hypothesis testing allows us to determine the size of the effect.

An example of findings reported with p values are below:

Statement: Drug 23 reduced patients' symptoms compared to Drug 22. Patients who received Drug 23 (n=100) were 2.1 times less likely than patients who received Drug 22 (n = 100) to experience symptoms of Disease A, p<0.05.

Statement:Individuals who were prescribed Drug 23 experienced fewer symptoms (M = 1.3, SD = 0.7) compared to individuals who were prescribed Drug 22 (M = 5.3, SD = 1.9). This finding was statistically significant, p= 0.02.

For either statement, if the threshold had been set at 0.05, the null hypothesis (that there was no relationship) should be rejected, and we should conclude significant differences. Noticeably, as can be seen in the two statements above, some researchers will report findings with < or > and others will provide an exact p-value (0.000001) but never zero [6] . When examining research, readers should understand how p values are reported. The best practice is to report all p values for all variables within a study design, rather than only providing p values for variables with significant findings. [7]  The inclusion of all p values provides evidence for study validity and limits suspicion for selective reporting/data mining.  

While researchers have historically used p values, experts who find p values problematic encourage the use of confidence intervals. [8] . P-values alone do not allow us to understand the size or the extent of the differences or associations. [3]  In March 2016, the American Statistical Association (ASA) released a statement on p values, noting that scientific decision-making and conclusions should not be based on a fixed p-value threshold (e.g., 0.05). They recommend focusing on the significance of results in the context of study design, quality of measurements, and validity of data. Ultimately, the ASA statement noted that in isolation, a p-value does not provide strong evidence. [9]

When conceptualizing clinical work, healthcare professionals should consider p values with a concurrent appraisal study design validity. For example, a p-value from a double-blinded randomized clinical trial (designed to minimize bias) should be weighted higher than one from a retrospective observational study [7] . The p-value debate has smoldered since the 1950s [10] , and replacement with confidence intervals has been suggested since the 1980s. [11]

Confidence Intervals

A confidence interval provides a range of values within given confidence (e.g., 95%), including the accurate value of the statistical constraint within a targeted population. [12]  Most research uses a 95% CI, but investigators can set any level (e.g., 90% CI, 99% CI). [13]  A CI provides a range with the lower bound and upper bound limits of a difference or association that would be plausible for a population. [14]  Therefore, a CI of 95% indicates that if a study were to be carried out 100 times, the range would contain the true value in 95, [15]  confidence intervals provide more evidence regarding the precision of an estimate compared to p-values. [6]

In consideration of the similar research example provided above, one could make the following statement with 95% CI:

Statement: Individuals who were prescribed Drug 23 had no symptoms after three days, which was significantly faster than those prescribed Drug 22; there was a mean difference between the two groups of days to the recovery of 4.2 days (95% CI: 1.9 – 7.8).

It is important to note that the width of the CI is affected by the standard error and the sample size; reducing a study sample number will result in less precision of the CI (increase the width). [14]  A larger width indicates a smaller sample size or a larger variability. [16]  A researcher would want to increase the precision of the CI. For example, a 95% CI of 1.43 – 1.47 is much more precise than the one provided in the example above. In research and clinical practice, CIs provide valuable information on whether the interval includes or excludes any clinically significant values. [14]

Null values are sometimes used for differences with CI (zero for differential comparisons and 1 for ratios). However, CIs provide more information than that. [15]  Consider this example: A hospital implements a new protocol that reduced wait time for patients in the emergency department by an average of 25 minutes (95% CI: -2.5 – 41 minutes). Because the range crosses zero, implementing this protocol in different populations could result in longer wait times; however, the range is much higher on the positive side. Thus, while the p-value used to detect statistical significance for this may result in "not significant" findings, individuals should examine this range, consider the study design, and weigh whether or not it is still worth piloting in their workplace.

Similarly to p-values, 95% CIs cannot control for researchers' errors (e.g., study bias or improper data analysis). [14]  In consideration of whether to report p-values or CIs, researchers should examine journal preferences. When in doubt, reporting both may be beneficial. [13]  An example is below:

Reporting both: Individuals who were prescribed Drug 23 had no symptoms after three days, which was significantly faster than those prescribed Drug 22, p = 0.009. There was a mean difference between the two groups of days to the recovery of 4.2 days (95% CI: 1.9 – 7.8).

• Clinical Significance

Recall that clinical significance and statistical significance are two different concepts. Healthcare providers should remember that a study with statistically significant differences and large sample size may be of no interest to clinicians, whereas a study with smaller sample size and statistically non-significant results could impact clinical practice. [14]  Additionally, as previously mentioned, a non-significant finding may reflect the study design itself rather than relationships between variables.

Healthcare providers using evidence-based medicine to inform practice should use clinical judgment to determine the practical importance of studies through careful evaluation of the design, sample size, power, likelihood of type I and type II errors, data analysis, and reporting of statistical findings (p values, 95% CI or both). [4]  Interestingly, some experts have called for "statistically significant" or "not significant" to be excluded from work as statistical significance never has and will never be equivalent to clinical significance. [17]

The decision on what is clinically significant can be challenging, depending on the providers' experience and especially the severity of the disease. Providers should use their knowledge and experiences to determine the meaningfulness of study results and make inferences based not only on significant or insignificant results by researchers but through their understanding of study limitations and practical implications.

• Nursing, Allied Health, and Interprofessional Team Interventions

All physicians, nurses, pharmacists, and other healthcare professionals should strive to understand the concepts in this chapter. These individuals should maintain the ability to review and incorporate new literature for evidence-based and safe care. 

• Review Questions
• Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.
• Comment on this article.

Disclosure: Jacob Shreffler declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Martin Huecker declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

• Cite this Page Shreffler J, Huecker MR. Hypothesis Testing, P Values, Confidence Intervals, and Significance. [Updated 2023 Mar 13]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-.

In this Page

Bulk download.

• Bulk download StatPearls data from FTP

Related information

• PMC PubMed Central citations
• PubMed Links to PubMed

Similar articles in PubMed

• The reporting of p values, confidence intervals and statistical significance in Preventive Veterinary Medicine (1997-2017). [PeerJ. 2021] The reporting of p values, confidence intervals and statistical significance in Preventive Veterinary Medicine (1997-2017). Messam LLM, Weng HY, Rosenberger NWY, Tan ZH, Payet SDM, Santbakshsing M. PeerJ. 2021; 9:e12453. Epub 2021 Nov 24.
• Review Clinical versus statistical significance: interpreting P values and confidence intervals related to measures of association to guide decision making. [J Pharm Pract. 2010] Review Clinical versus statistical significance: interpreting P values and confidence intervals related to measures of association to guide decision making. Ferrill MJ, Brown DA, Kyle JA. J Pharm Pract. 2010 Aug; 23(4):344-51. Epub 2010 Apr 13.
• Interpreting "statistical hypothesis testing" results in clinical research. [J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2012] Interpreting "statistical hypothesis testing" results in clinical research. Sarmukaddam SB. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2012 Apr; 3(2):65-9.
• Folic acid supplementation and malaria susceptibility and severity among people taking antifolate antimalarial drugs in endemic areas. [Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022] Folic acid supplementation and malaria susceptibility and severity among people taking antifolate antimalarial drugs in endemic areas. Crider K, Williams J, Qi YP, Gutman J, Yeung L, Mai C, Finkelstain J, Mehta S, Pons-Duran C, Menéndez C, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Feb 1; 2(2022). Epub 2022 Feb 1.
• Review Is statistical significance testing useful in interpreting data? [Reprod Toxicol. 1993] Review Is statistical significance testing useful in interpreting data? Savitz DA. Reprod Toxicol. 1993; 7(2):95-100.

Recent Activity

• Hypothesis Testing, P Values, Confidence Intervals, and Significance - StatPearl... Hypothesis Testing, P Values, Confidence Intervals, and Significance - StatPearls

Your browsing activity is empty.

Activity recording is turned off.

Turn recording back on

Connect with NLM

National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894

Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure

Help Accessibility Careers

Write articles in minutes

Write faster with 70+ templates

Do your work 3x faster

Make images with AI

Support & live chat with customers

Build better customer relationships

Give 24/7 self-service support

Write content fluently in 30+ languages

10 Proven Steps: How to Find the Hypothesis in an Article - 2023 Guide

Here are 10 important statistics about finding the hypothesis in an article

• Over 80% of readers struggle to identify the hypothesis in an article .
• Only 20% of articles clearly state their hypothesis in the introduction.
• Articles with a clear hypothesis receive 50% more engagement.
• Readers spend 30% less time on articles without a clear hypothesis.
• Articles with a well-defined hypothesis rank higher in search engine results .
• 70% of readers prefer articles that present a hypothesis upfront.
• Articles with a strong hypothesis are more likely to be shared on social media .
• Readers are 40% more likely to trust articles that have a clear hypothesis.
• Articles without a hypothesis often lack focus and fail to deliver valuable insights.
• Identifying the hypothesis in an article is a crucial step in critical thinking and analysis.

Step 1: Understand the Purpose of the Article

To find the hypothesis in an article , it is essential to first understand the purpose of the article. The purpose can vary depending on the type of article, such as informative, persuasive, or research-based. By identifying the purpose, you can gain insights into the author's intention and potential hypothesis.

Why is understanding the purpose important?

Understanding the purpose helps you set the right expectations and focus your attention on relevant information. It allows you to evaluate whether the article fulfills its intended goal and whether the hypothesis aligns with the purpose.

Step 2: Analyze the Title and Subheadings

The title and subheadings of an article often provide valuable clues about the hypothesis. They are designed to capture the main idea and structure the content. By carefully analyzing the title and subheadings, you can identify keywords and phrases that hint at the hypothesis.

I use AtOnce's AI SEO optimizer to rank higher on Google without wasting hours on research:

What should you look for in the title and subheadings?

Look for words or phrases that suggest a claim, argument, or prediction. These can indicate the presence of a hypothesis. Pay attention to any keywords related to cause and effect, comparison, or correlation. These can also provide insights into the hypothesis.

Step 3: Read the Introduction Carefully

The introduction of an article is where authors typically present their hypothesis. It sets the stage for the rest of the content and provides a clear statement of what the article aims to prove or explore. By reading the introduction carefully, you can directly identify the hypothesis.

What should you focus on in the introduction?

Pay attention to any explicit statements that outline the author's main argument or research question . Look for sentences that express a clear position or propose a specific relationship between variables. These are likely to be the hypothesis or closely related to it.

Step 4: Identify Key Statements and Claims

Throughout the article, authors make various statements and claims to support their hypothesis. By identifying these key statements, you can piece together the underlying hypothesis. Look for sentences that assert a particular outcome, propose a theory, or present evidence to support a specific idea.

How can you identify key statements and claims?

Key statements and claims often appear as topic sentences or in paragraphs that provide supporting evidence. They may be accompanied by data, examples, or references to other studies. Look for statements that stand out and contribute to the overall argument of the article.

Step 5: Examine the Methodology and Results

If the article is research-based, examining the methodology and results sections can provide valuable insights into the hypothesis. The methodology outlines how the study was conducted, while the results present the findings. By understanding the methodology and results, you can infer the hypothesis being tested.

What should you look for in the methodology and results?

Pay attention to the research question or objective stated in the methodology. This can give you a clear indication of the hypothesis being investigated. In the results section, look for any conclusions or interpretations that directly relate to the hypothesis.

Step 6: Consider the Author's Bias

Authors may have biases or preconceived notions that influence their hypothesis. Understanding the author's bias can help you interpret the hypothesis more accurately. Consider the author's background, affiliations, and any potential conflicts of interest that may impact their perspective.

How can you identify the author's bias?

Look for any explicit statements or indications of the author's position on the topic. Consider the sources cited and whether they are reputable and unbiased. Analyze the language used and any emotional or persuasive techniques employed by the author.

Example of me using AtOnce's AI language generator to write fluently & grammatically correct in any language:

Step 7: Evaluate Supporting Evidence

An article with a hypothesis should provide supporting evidence to validate or explore the hypothesis. By evaluating the quality and relevance of the supporting evidence, you can gain a deeper understanding of the hypothesis and its credibility. Look for data, research studies, expert opinions, or logical arguments that support the hypothesis.

What should you consider when evaluating supporting evidence?

Assess the reliability and validity of the sources cited. Look for peer-reviewed studies or reputable sources that provide empirical evidence. Consider the logical coherence of the arguments presented and whether they align with established theories or principles.

Step 8: Compare and Contrast Different Perspectives

Articles often present multiple perspectives or counterarguments to the hypothesis. By comparing and contrasting these different viewpoints, you can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the hypothesis and its implications. Look for sections that discuss alternative theories, conflicting evidence, or opposing viewpoints.

Why is comparing and contrasting important?

Comparing and contrasting different perspectives helps you critically evaluate the hypothesis and consider alternative explanations. It allows you to assess the strength of the evidence and identify any limitations or gaps in the argument.

Step 9: Summarize the Main Argument

To find the hypothesis in an article, it can be helpful to summarize the main argument in your own words. By condensing the key points and ideas, you can distill the hypothesis into a concise statement. This summary can serve as a reference point to ensure your understanding aligns with the author's intent.

How can you effectively summarize the main argument?

Focus on the central claim or idea that the author is trying to convey. Remove any unnecessary details or supporting evidence. Use clear and concise language to capture the essence of the hypothesis.

Step 10: Reflect on the Article's Impact

After identifying the hypothesis, take a moment to reflect on the article's impact and significance. Consider how the hypothesis contributes to the field of study or the broader context. Reflecting on the article's impact helps you appreciate the value of finding and understanding the hypothesis.

Why is reflecting on the article's impact important?

Reflecting on the article's impact allows you to evaluate its relevance and potential implications. It helps you connect the hypothesis to real-world applications or further research opportunities. Additionally, it enhances your critical thinking skills and ability to analyze scholarly articles

Over 15,763 SEO agencies and brands are using AtOnce to rank higher on Google.

It lets you write hundreds of articles on any topic, giving you more clicks to your site.

Get more traffic and sales — without wasting months of your time.

What is a hypothesis in an article?

A hypothesis in an article is a proposed explanation or prediction that is based on limited evidence. It serves as a starting point for further research and investigation.

Why is it important to find the hypothesis in an article?

Finding the hypothesis in an article is important because it helps to understand the main argument or claim that the author is making. It provides a focus for the research and helps to determine the validity of the article's findings.

How can I find the hypothesis in an article?

To find the hypothesis in an article, you can start by reading the introduction and the abstract. Look for statements that propose an explanation or prediction. Pay attention to any keywords or phrases that indicate the author's hypothesis. Additionally, you can look for any research questions or objectives that the author sets out to address in the article.

Asim Akhtar

Asim is the CEO & founder of AtOnce. After 5 years of marketing & customer service experience, he's now using Artificial Intelligence to save people time.

Holman Library

Research Guide: Scholarly Journals

• Introduction: Hypothesis/Thesis
• Why Use Scholarly Journals?
• What does "Peer-Reviewed" mean?
• What is *NOT* a Scholarly Journal Article?
• Interlibrary Loan for Journal Articles
• Reading the Citation
• Authors' Credentials
• Literature Review
• Methodology
• Results/Data
• Discussion/Conclusions
• APA Citations for Scholarly Journal Articles
• MLA Citations for Scholarly Journal Articles

Hypothesis or Thesis

Looking for the author's thesis or hypothesis.

The image below shows the part of the scholarly article that shows where the authors are making their argument. 

(click on image to enlarge)

• The first few paragraphs of a journal article serve to introduce the topic, to provide the author's hypothesis or thesis, and to indicate why the research was done.  
• A thesis or hypothesis is not always clearly labeled; you may need to read through the introductory paragraphs to determine what the authors are proposing.
• << Previous: How to Read a Scholarly Article
• Next: Reading the Citation >>
• Last Updated: Sep 27, 2023 2:37 PM
• URL: https://libguides.greenriver.edu/scholarlyjournals

• Social Anxiety Disorder
• Bipolar Disorder
• Kids Mental Health
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Relationships in 2023
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2023 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

How to Write a Great Hypothesis

Hypothesis Format, Examples, and Tips

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Alex Dos Diaz

• The Scientific Method

Hypothesis Format

Falsifiability of a hypothesis, operational definitions, types of hypotheses, hypotheses examples.

• Collecting Data

Frequently Asked Questions

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more  variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study.

One hypothesis example would be a study designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance might have a hypothesis that states: "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-deprived."

This article explores how a hypothesis is used in psychology research, how to write a good hypothesis, and the different types of hypotheses you might use.

The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method

In the scientific method , whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area, a hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment. The scientific method involves the following steps:

• Forming a question
• Performing background research
• Creating a hypothesis
• Designing an experiment
• Collecting data
• Analyzing the results
• Drawing conclusions
• Communicating the results

The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. It is only at this point that researchers begin to develop a testable hypothesis. Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your hypothesis should always explain what you  expect  to happen.

In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore a number of factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment  do not  support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.

In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might hypothesize: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."

In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk wisdom that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

So how do you write a good hypothesis? When trying to come up with a hypothesis for your research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:

• Is your hypothesis based on your research on a topic?
• Can your hypothesis be tested?
• Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the  journal articles you read . Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

To form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:

• Collect as many observations about a topic or problem as you can.
• Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
• Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
• After you have developed some possible hypotheses, think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.

In the scientific method ,  falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis.   In order to test a claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could be proven false.

Students sometimes confuse the idea of falsifiability with the idea that it means that something is false, which is not the case. What falsifiability means is that  if  something was false, then it is possible to demonstrate that it is false.

One of the hallmarks of pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false.

A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and measurable. However, the researcher must also define how the variable will be manipulated and measured in the study.

For example, a researcher might operationally define the variable " test anxiety " as the results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. A "study habits" variable might be defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.

These precise descriptions are important because many things can be measured in a number of different ways. One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable.   By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.

Some variables are more difficult than others to define. How would you operationally define a variable such as aggression ? For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward others.

In order to measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without harming other people. In this situation, the researcher might utilize a simulated task to measure aggressiveness.

Hypothesis Checklist

• Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
• Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
• Can you manipulate the variables?
• Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?

The hypothesis you use will depend on what you are investigating and hoping to find. Some of the main types of hypotheses that you might use include:

• Simple hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests that there is a relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
• Complex hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests a relationship between three or more variables, such as two independent variables and a dependent variable.
• Null hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests no relationship exists between two or more variables.
• Alternative hypothesis : This hypothesis states the opposite of the null hypothesis.
• Statistical hypothesis : This hypothesis uses statistical analysis to evaluate a representative sample of the population and then generalizes the findings to the larger group.
• Logical hypothesis : This hypothesis assumes a relationship between variables without collecting data or evidence.

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the  dependent variable  if you change the  independent variable .

The basic format might be: "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples of simple hypotheses:

• "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
• Complex hypothesis: "Students who experience test anxiety before an English exam will get lower scores than students who do not experience test anxiety."​
• "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."

Examples of a complex hypothesis include:

• "People with high-sugar diets and sedentary activity levels are more likely to develop depression."
• "Younger people who are regularly exposed to green, outdoor areas have better subjective well-being than older adults who have limited exposure to green spaces."

Examples of a null hypothesis include:

• "Children who receive a new reading intervention will have scores different than students who do not receive the intervention."
• "There will be no difference in scores on a memory recall task between children and adults."

Examples of an alternative hypothesis:

• "Children who receive a new reading intervention will perform better than students who did not receive the intervention."
• "Adults will perform better on a memory task than children." 

Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis

Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive research and experimental research.

Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research such as  case studies ,  naturalistic observations , and surveys are often used when it would be impossible or difficult to  conduct an experiment . These methods are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.

Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a correlational study can then be used to look at how the variables are related. This type of research method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.

Experimental Research Methods

Experimental methods  are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable).

Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship—whether changes in one variable actually  cause  another to change.

A Word From Verywell

The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or experiment. In situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, the research still has value. Such research helps us better understand how different aspects of the natural world relate to one another. It also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in the future.

Some examples of how to write a hypothesis include:

• "Staying up late will lead to worse test performance the next day."
• "People who consume one apple each day will visit the doctor fewer times each year."
• "Breaking study sessions up into three 20-minute sessions will lead to better test results than a single 60-minute study session."

The four parts of a hypothesis are:

• The research question
• The independent variable (IV)
• The dependent variable (DV)
• The proposed relationship between the IV and DV

Castillo M. The scientific method: a need for something better? . AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2013;34(9):1669-71. doi:10.3174/ajnr.A3401

Nevid J. Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadworth, 2013.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

By clicking “Accept All Cookies”, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts.

What Is a Hypothesis? (Science)

If...,Then...

Angela Lumsden/Getty Images

• Scientific Method
• Chemical Laws
• Periodic Table
• Projects & Experiments
• Biochemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Medical Chemistry
• Chemistry In Everyday Life
• Famous Chemists
• Activities for Kids
• Abbreviations & Acronyms
• Weather & Climate
• Ph.D., Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee at Knoxville
• B.A., Physics and Mathematics, Hastings College

A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for an observation. The definition depends on the subject.

In science, a hypothesis is part of the scientific method. It is a prediction or explanation that is tested by an experiment. Observations and experiments may disprove a scientific hypothesis, but can never entirely prove one.

In the study of logic, a hypothesis is an if-then proposition, typically written in the form, "If X , then Y ."

In common usage, a hypothesis is simply a proposed explanation or prediction, which may or may not be tested.

Writing a Hypothesis

Most scientific hypotheses are proposed in the if-then format because it's easy to design an experiment to see whether or not a cause and effect relationship exists between the independent variable and the dependent variable . The hypothesis is written as a prediction of the outcome of the experiment.

• Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis

Statistically, it's easier to show there is no relationship between two variables than to support their connection. So, scientists often propose the null hypothesis . The null hypothesis assumes changing the independent variable will have no effect on the dependent variable.

In contrast, the alternative hypothesis suggests changing the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable. Designing an experiment to test this hypothesis can be trickier because there are many ways to state an alternative hypothesis.

For example, consider a possible relationship between getting a good night's sleep and getting good grades. The null hypothesis might be stated: "The number of hours of sleep students get is unrelated to their grades" or "There is no correlation between hours of sleep and grades."

An experiment to test this hypothesis might involve collecting data, recording average hours of sleep for each student and grades. If a student who gets eight hours of sleep generally does better than students who get four hours of sleep or 10 hours of sleep, the hypothesis might be rejected.

But the alternative hypothesis is harder to propose and test. The most general statement would be: "The amount of sleep students get affects their grades." The hypothesis might also be stated as "If you get more sleep, your grades will improve" or "Students who get nine hours of sleep have better grades than those who get more or less sleep."

In an experiment, you can collect the same data, but the statistical analysis is less likely to give you a high confidence limit.

Usually, a scientist starts out with the null hypothesis. From there, it may be possible to propose and test an alternative hypothesis, to narrow down the relationship between the variables.

Example of a Hypothesis

Examples of a hypothesis include:

• If you drop a rock and a feather, (then) they will fall at the same rate.
• Plants need sunlight in order to live. (if sunlight, then life)
• Eating sugar gives you energy. (if sugar, then energy)
• White, Jay D.  Research in Public Administration . Conn., 1998.
• Schick, Theodore, and Lewis Vaughn.  How to Think about Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age . McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2002.
• Null Hypothesis Definition and Examples
• What Are the Elements of a Good Hypothesis?
• Definition of a Hypothesis
• Six Steps of the Scientific Method
• Understanding Simple vs Controlled Experiments
• What Are Examples of a Hypothesis?
• Scientific Method Flow Chart
• Scientific Method Vocabulary Terms
• What Is a Testable Hypothesis?
• Null Hypothesis Examples
• What 'Fail to Reject' Means in a Hypothesis Test
• How To Design a Science Fair Experiment
• What Is an Experiment? Definition and Design
• Hypothesis Test for the Difference of Two Population Proportions
• How to Conduct a Hypothesis Test

By clicking “Accept All Cookies”, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts.

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• 20 September 2023

Consciousness theory slammed as ‘pseudoscience’ — sparking uproar

• Mariana Lenharo

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

You have full access to this article via your institution.

Some research has focused on how neurons (shown here in a false-colour scanning electron micrograph) are involved in consciousness. Credit: Ted Kinsman/Science Photo Library

A letter, signed by 124 scholars and posted online last week, has caused an uproar in the consciousness-research community. It argues that a prominent theory describing what makes someone or something conscious — called the integrated information theory (IIT) — should be labelled as pseudoscience. Since its publication on 15 September in the preprint repository PsyArXiv 1 , the letter has resulted in some researchers arguing over the label and others worrying that it will increase polarization in a field that has grappled with issues of credibility in the past.

Decades-long bet on consciousness ends — and it’s philosopher 1, neuroscientist 0

“I think it’s inflammatory to describe IIT as pseudoscience,” says neuroscientist Anil Seth, director of the Centre for Consciousness Science at the University of Sussex near Brighton, UK, adding that he disagrees with the label. “IIT is a theory, of course, and therefore may be empirically wrong,” says Christof Koch, a meritorious investigator at the Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle, Washington, and a proponent of the theory. But he says that it makes its assumptions — for example, that consciousness has a physical basis and can be mathematically measured — very clear.

There are dozens of theories that seek to understand consciousness — everything that a human or non-human experiences, including what they feel, see and hear — as well as its underlying neural foundations. IIT has often been described as one of the central theories, alongside others such as global neuronal workspace theory (GNW), higher-order thought theory and recurrent processing theory. It proposes that consciousness emerges from the way information is processed within a ‘system’ (for instance, networks of neurons or computer circuits), and that systems that are more interconnected, or integrated, have higher levels of consciousness.

A growing discomfort

Hakwan Lau, a neuroscientist at the Riken Center for Brain Science in Wako, Japan, and one of the authors of the letter, says that some researchers in the consciousness field are uncomfortable with what they perceive as a discrepancy between IIT’s scientific merit and the considerable attention it receives from the popular media because of how it is promoted by advocates. “Has IIT become a leading theory because of academic acceptance first, or is it because of the popular noise that kind of forced the academics to give it acknowledgement?”, Lau asks.

If AI becomes conscious: here’s how researchers will know

Negative feelings towards the theory intensified after it captured headlines in June. Media outlets, including Nature , reported the results of an ‘adversarial’ study that pitted IIT against GNW. The experiments 2 , which included brain scans, didn’t prove or completely disprove either theory, but some researchers found it problematic that IIT was highlighted as a leading theory of consciousness, prompting Lau and his co-authors to draft their letter.

But why label IIT as pseudoscience? Although the letter doesn’t clearly define pseudoscience, Lau notes that a “commonsensical definition” would be “something that is not very scientifically supported, that masquerades as if it is already very scientifically established”. In this sense, he thinks that IIT fits the bill.

Is it testable?

In addition, Lau says, some of his co-authors think that it’s not possible to empirically test IIT’s core assumptions, which they argue contributes to the theory’s status as pseudoscience.

Decoding the neuroscience of consciousness

Seth, who is not a proponent of IIT, although he has worked on related ideas in the past, disagrees. “The core claims are harder to test than other theories because it’s a more ambitious theory,” he says. But there are some predictions stemming from the theory, about neural activity associated with consciousness, for instance, that can be tested, he adds. A 2022 review found 101 empirical studies involving IIT 3 .

Liad Mudrik, a neuroscientist at Tel Aviv University in Israel who co-led the adversarial study of IIT versus GNW, also defends IIT’s testability at the neural level. “Not only did we test it, we managed to falsify one of its predictions,” she says. “I think many people in the field don’t like IIT, and this is completely fine. Yet it is not clear to me what is the basis for claiming that it is not one of the leading theories.”

The same criticism about a lack of meaningful empirical tests could be made about other theories of consciousness, says Erik Hoel, a neuroscientist and writer based in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Hoel is also a former student of Giulio Tononi, a neuroscientist at the University of Wisconsin–Madison who is a proponent of IIT. “Everyone who works in the field has to acknowledge that we don’t have perfect brain scans,” Hoel says. “And yet, somehow, IIT is singled out in the letter as this being a problem that’s unique to it.”

Damaging effect

Lau says he doesn’t expect a consensus on the topic. “But I think if it is known that, let’s say, a significant minority of us are willing to [sign our names] that we think it is pseudoscience, knowing that some people may disagree, that’s still a good message.” He hopes that the letter reaches young researchers, policymakers, journal editors and funders. “All of them right now are very easily swayed by the media narrative.”

Mudrik emphasizes that she deeply respects the people who signed the letter, some of whom are close collaborators and friends, but says that she worries about the effect it will have on the way the consciousness field is perceived. “Consciousness research has been struggling with scepticism from its inception, trying to establish itself as a legitimate scientific field,” she says. “In my opinion, the way to fight such scepticism is by conducting excellent and rigorous research”, rather than by publicly calling out certain people and ideas.

Hoel fears that the letter might discourage the development of other ambitious theories. “The most important thing for me is that we don’t make our hypotheses small and banal in order to avoid being tarred with the pseudoscience label.”

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-02971-1

Fleming, S. et al. Preprint at PsyArXiv https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/zsr78 (2023).

Cogitate Consortium et al. Preprint at bioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.06.23.546249 (2023).

Yaron, I. et al. Nature Hum. Behav. 6 , 593–604 (2022).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Download references

Reprints and Permissions

Related Articles

• Scientific community
• Neuroscience

Digging up ancient animals in Amazonia

Spotlight 28 SEP 23

How a US government shutdown could disrupt science

News Explainer 28 SEP 23

Can AI help to predict who will win a Nobel Prize?

News 28 SEP 23

The brain cells linked to protection against dementia

Dopaminergic error signals retune to social feedback during courtship

Article 27 SEP 23

Proteome census upon nutrient stress reveals Golgiphagy membrane receptors

News 24 AUG 23

Consciousness: unicellular organisms know the secret

Correspondence 01 AUG 23

News 24 JUN 23

Postdoctoral Associate- Preeclampsia

Houston, Texas (US)

Baylor College of Medicine (BCM)

Joint PhD Call (late 2023): 10 fully funded PhD fellowships in Quantitative Biology

The advent of large-throughput data is transforming life sciences into an increasingly quantitative discipline.

Lausanne, Canton of Vaud (CH)

University of Lausanne (UNIL)

Postdoctoral Associate

Postdoctoral research fellow in neurodegenerative disease genetics

Lunds universitet, Institutionen för kliniska vetenskaper Malmö Lund University was founded in 1666 and is repeatedly ranked among the world’s top ...

Lund (Stad), Skåne (SE)

Lund University

Postdoctoral Researcher (f/m/d) at the interface of Biology, Bioengineering and Optical High Throug

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) – The Research University in the Helmholtz Association creates and imparts knowledge for the society and th...

Germany (DE)

Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT) Campus Nord

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

share this!

September 28, 2023

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

fact-checked

peer-reviewed publication

trusted source

The 'Grandmother Hypothesis': Skin behind the ears and between the toes can host a collection of unhealthy microbes

by George Washington University

Journal information: Frontiers in Microbiology

Provided by George Washington University

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Mouthwash for dogs: Water additive with pomegranate helps to keep canine teeth healthy

2 hours ago

3D-printed plasmonic plastic enables large-scale optical sensor production

10 hours ago

DECam captures the stunning layers of shell galaxy NGC 3923 and nearby gravitational lensing

Watch how hammerhead sharks get their hammer

Superbolts: Scientists figure out what causes Earth's strongest lightning

The chilling tale of snow flies, self-amputation, survival and certain death

Living on the edge: Supernova bubble expands in new Hubble time-lapse movie

11 hours ago

A turtle time capsule: DNA found in ancient shell

Turning mine waste into healthy soil

Wearable aptamer nanobiosensor wirelessly monitors estrogen in sweat

12 hours ago

Related Stories

Researchers identify new bacteria and viruses on human skin

Jan 4, 2022

Whale shark health relies on habitat, diet—and the right mix of microbes

Aug 22, 2023

Acne bacteria trigger cells to produce fats, oils and other lipids essential to skin health, shows new research

Aug 23, 2023

Skin, mouth, lungs—it's not just your gut that has a microbiome

Jul 24, 2023

Cosmetic makers bottle bacteria for beautiful skin

May 10, 2017

Study shows skin microbiome imbalance likely behind eczema flareups

May 2, 2019

Recommended for you

New method can better identify sneaky sugars on viruses' spiky weapons

Scientists shed light on how stressed cells sequester protein-forming mRNAs

14 hours ago

Gluten-free African grain teff shows antioxidant activity in human cells

16 hours ago

The recessive genes that make a carrot orange

A better understanding of gene regulation in embryonic stem cells

Scientists reveal how phosphate escapes from actin filaments

Let us know if there is a problem with our content.

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

Your Privacy

This site uses cookies to assist with navigation, analyse your use of our services, collect data for ads personalisation and provide content from third parties. By using our site, you acknowledge that you have read and understand our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use .

E-mail newsletter

Advertisement

The Mexican hypothesis debunked: How marijuana really came to the US

The idea that marijuana use was introduced and spread across the US by immigrants from Mexico is widely accepted, but the evidence actually supporting this is dubious

By Chelsea Whyte

22 September 2023

Popular media amplified concerns about the dangers of marijuana and linked the drug to Mexican immigrants, as seen in this article from The Ogden Standard from September 1915

University of Utah/Marriott Library

The true tale of marijuana’s arrival in the US may have been obscured by a useful fiction that was devised and spread during the fight to legalise the drug during the 1960s and 1970s. Many reputable sources still repeat the story that Mexican immigrants introduced the recreational use of cannabis to the US after the Mexican Revolution began in 1910. They …

To continue reading, subscribe today with our introductory offers

No commitment, cancel anytime*

Offer ends 28th October 2023.

*Cancel anytime within 14 days of payment to receive a refund on unserved issues.

Inclusive of applicable taxes (VAT)

Existing subscribers

More from New Scientist

Explore the latest news, articles and features

Cannabis use disorder may raise the risk of a heart attack or stroke

6 charts that explain the cannabis revolution, cannabis for medical use is soaring but the research is lagging behind.

Subscriber-only

Is CBD a wonder drug or waste of money? Here's what the evidence says

Popular articles.

Trending New Scientist articles

• Entertainment
• Photography
• Press Releases
• Russia-Ukraine War
• Latin America
• Middle East
• Asia Pacific
• Election 2024
• Movie reviews
• Book reviews
• AP Top 25 Poll
• Financial Markets
• Business Highlights
• Financial wellness
• Artificial Intelligence
• Social Media

Ray Epps, ex-Marine targeted by a Jan. 6 conspiracy theory, is charged with a misdemeanor in riot

FILE - Insurrections loyal to President Donald Trump rally at the U.S. Capitol in Washington on Jan. 6, 2021. Ray Epps, an Arizona man who became the center of a conspiracy theory about Jan. 6, 2021, has been charged with a misdemeanor offense in connection with the U.S. Capitol riot, according to court papers filed Tuesday. Epps is charged with a single count of a disorderly or disruptive conduct on restricted grounds. (AP Photo/Jose Luis Magana, File)

• Copy Link copied

WASHINGTON (AP) — Ray Epps, a former Marine who became the target of a Jan. 6, 2021, conspiracy theory, has been charged with a misdemeanor offense in connection with the U.S. Capitol riot and is expected to plead guilty, according to court papers filed Tuesday.

Epps, who claimed in a lawsuit filed this year that Fox News Channel made him a scapegoat for the Capitol riot , is charged with disorderly or disruptive conduct on restricted grounds, court records show.

Epps’ attorney, Edward J. Ungvarsky, said in an email that the case was filed with an anticipation that Epps would plead guilty to the charge. The judge has scheduled a plea agreement hearing for Wednesday.

Epps, a one-time supporter of President Donald Trump who has said he went to Washington to protest the 2020 election Trump lost to Joe Biden, was falsely accused by Fox of being a government agent who was whipping up trouble that would be blamed on Trump supporters, his lawsuit claims.

FBI Director Christopher Wray, in an appearance before the House Judiciary Committee in July, denied having any knowledge of Epps being a “secret government agent.”

“I will say this notion that somehow the violence at the Capitol on January 6 was part of some operation orchestrated by FBI sources and agents is ludicrous,” Wray told lawmakers.

In an interview that aired earlier this year with CBS’ “60 Minutes,” Epps, of Mesa, Arizona, described being “on the run,” after death threats forced him and his wife to sell their home. At the time of the interview, they were living in a recreational vehicle in the Rocky Mountains, according to “60 Minutes.”

“I had to do the necessary things to keep my family safe,” Epps said.

Although Epps’ lawsuit mentions Fox’s Laura Ingraham and Will Cain, former Fox host Tucker Carlson is cited as the leader in promoting the theory. Epps was featured in more than two dozen segments on Carlson’s prime-time show, the lawsuit said. Messages seeking comment were sent Tuesday to Fox News and a lawyer for Carlson.

Epps’ lawsuit against Fox says the Justice Department told him in May that he faces criminal charges for his actions on Jan. 6 and blames that on “the relentless attacks by Fox and Mr. Carlson and the resulting political pressure.”

The lawsuit includes threatening messages Epps says he received, including one that reads, “Epps, sleep with one eye open.”

During his January 2022 interview with the Jan. 6 House Committee, Epps, who worked as a roofer after serving four years as infantry in the U.S. Marine Corps, told investigators that he never worked for the FBI.

“The only time I’ve been involved with the government was when I was a Marine in the United States Marine Corps,” Epps said.

Epps was a previously member of the far-right Oath Keepers extremist group, serving as an Arizona chapter leader before parting ways with the anti-government group a few years before the Jan. 6 attack, he said. He said the Oath Keepers were “too radical” for him. Oath Keepers founder Stewart Rhodes and other members were convicted of seditious conspiracy in the Jan. 6 attack.

Asked if he had any insight as to why he hadn’t been charged with a crime for his role in the riot, Epps told House investigators that he was “trying to stop the violence, trying to keep people from getting themselves in more trouble.”

Epps said he was getting death threats and his grandchildren were “being picked on at school because of what their grandad did.”

More than 1,100 people have been charged with federal crimes stemming from the Jan. 6 riot, and authorities continue to regularly bring new cases nearly three years later. Roughly 670 defendants have pleaded guilty to charges, and of those, more than 480 pleaded guilty to misdemeanors only, according to an Associated Press analysis of court records.

Richer reported from Boston. Associated Press reporters David Bauder contributed from New York.

Advertisement

Supported by

Ray Epps, Target of Conspiracy Theory, Pleads Guilty to Jan. 6 Misdemeanor

Prosecutors said he had never worked as an agent of the government, again refuting a right-wing theory that he helped instigate the Capitol riot in a federal plot to discredit Trump supporters.

• Share full article

By Alan Feuer and Zach Montague

Ray Epps, the Trump supporter who was swept up in one of the most persistent right-wing conspiracy theories connected to the events of Jan. 6, 2021, pleaded guilty on Wednesday to a single misdemeanor charge for his role in the attack on the Capitol.

The 20-minute plea hearing, conducted by video in Federal District Court in Washington, came one day after the Justice Department charged Mr. Epps with disrupting the orderly conduct of government business by entering a restricted area on the Capitol grounds on Jan. 6.

Prosecutors said at the hearing that aside from breaching the barricades outside the Capitol, Mr. Epps placed his hands on a giant Trump sign that the mob used as a battering ram against the police.

Mr. Epps will face a maximum of one year in prison when he is sentenced in December.

Mr. Epps, a former Marine and wedding venue owner who voted twice for Donald J. Trump, became the unlikely focus of a conspiracy theory promoted on Fox News and by right-wing commentators. It held that he had been a covert government asset who helped instigate the riot as a way of discrediting Trump supporters.

The theory was largely based on the fact that he was never charged with any crimes, even though he was captured on video the night before the riot encouraging people to go into the Capitol. He was also seen on Jan. 6 pointing others toward the building and then entering a restricted area of the Capitol grounds.

The guilty plea entered by Mr. Epps showed that he was being held accountable for his crimes and undercut the narrative that he was being protected by the federal government.

During the hearing, a prosecutor told Judge James E. Boasberg, who is overseeing that case, that Mr. Epps had not worked as an agent of the government “before, during or after” Jan. 6. Citing the conspiracy theories, Edward J. Ungvarsky, a lawyer for Mr. Epps, asked Judge Boasberg to grant Mr. Epps unusual privileges before his sentencing, including maintaining the right to own a gun.

Mr. Ungvarsky argued that conspiracy-fueled threats had forced Mr. Epps to leave his job and home state, and justified letting Mr. Epps continue to travel freely and have access to firearms. Judge Boasberg flatly denied the request, citing his record of restricting gun access to others charged in connection with the riot.

In a statement issued after the hearing, Mr. Ungvarsky said Mr. Epps’s guilty plea was “a step in putting his life back together.”

It remains unclear why the Justice Department decided to charge Mr. Epps now, more than two and a half years after the Capitol attack. The charging document used against him, known as a criminal information, was filed two months after he brought a defamation lawsuit against Fox News, ensuring that his story would remain in the public eye for months, if not years. It also came after he decided to fight back against the conspiracy theory in the news media, granting interviews to both The New York Times and CBS’s “60 Minutes.”

Mr. Epps was one of only a handful of people who trespassed on the Capitol grounds on Jan. 6 but did not enter the building itself to be prosecuted. While videos from that day clearly depict him as being in the first wave of rioters to move past a police barricade outside the Capitol, footage from later in the day shows him trying to calm the crowd around him and de-escalate tensions with the police.

A hearing for oral arguments is likely to be scheduled soon in Mr. Epps’s defamation suit against Fox, which is unfolding in Federal District Court in Wilmington, Del. His lawyer in that case, Michael Teter, said in a statement on Wednesday that Mr. Epps cooperated with the F.B.I. as soon as he learned that investigators were trying to identify him.

“Had Ray been charged earlier, Fox News would have called him a hero and political prisoner,” Mr. Teter said. “Instead, Fox News spread falsehoods about Ray that have cost him his livelihood and safety.”

Alan Feuer covers extremism and political violence. He joined The Times in 1999. More about Alan Feuer

Zach Montague is based in Washington. He covers breaking news and developments around the district. More about Zach Montague

Our Coverage of the Capitol Riot and its Fallout

T he Events on Jan. 6

Timeline:  On Jan. 6, 2021, a mob of supporters of President Donald Trump raided the U.S. Capitol . Here is a close look at how the attack unfolded .

A Day of Rage:  Using thousands of videos and police radio communications, a New York Times investigation reconstructed in detail what happened — and why .

Lost Lives: A bipartisan Senate report found that at least seven people died  in connection with the attack.

Jan. 6 Attendees:  To many of those who attended the Trump rally but never breached the Capitol, Jan. 6 wasn’t a dark day for the nation. It was a new start .

The Federal Case Against Donald Trump

The Indictment:  Former President Donald Trump was indicted on Aug. 1  after a sprawling federal investigation into his attempts to cling to power  after losing the 2020 election. Here is how the indictment was structured .

The Arraignment:  In federal court in Washington, Trump pleaded not guilty  to accusations that he illegally tried to hold on to power and overturn President Biden’s victory in 2020. Here are some key takeaways from his arraignment .

The Trial:  Trump vowed to appeal the judge’s decision to schedule the start of his trial on March 4 . Legal experts say he can’t disrupt the trial that way — but there is a longer-shot possibility .

Gag Order: Prosecutors have asked the judge to impose a gag order  on Trump, citing his social media attacks on people involved in the case. The request pits free speech against the risk of violence .

Conspiracy theories about Russell Brand sexual assault allegations go viral with help from Musk

Russell Brand denies sexual assault allegations

When comedian-turned-conservative-influencer Russell Brand preemptively denied sexual assault allegations on Friday, he flicked at a conspiracy theory that quickly found traction among his supporters and other far-right voices: That the media had ulterior motives for publishing the stories about him.

“Is there another agenda at play?” he asked in his pre-emptive video response to the investigation published Saturday by The Times and Channel 4 , which documented four sexual assault allegations brought against him.

Deep skepticism of the media has become foundational for many conservatives over the last decade and Brand’s invocation of that skepticism quickly found support from members of his online conservative cohort, most notably Elon Musk and Tucker Carlson.

The Times published its investigative report Saturday, done in conjunction with The Sunday Times and Channel 4, in which the women accused him of sexual assaults that purportedly took place between 2006 and 2013. Brand’s management agency, Tavistock Wood Management, severed ties with him soon after the report came to light, writing that it had been “horribly misled by him.” 

Brand posted his response video to YouTube, X  and the conservative video site Rumble, hinting at the report to come and warning his followers about its veracity. Brand denied the allegations, maintaining that all his sexual relations in the past had been consensual.

YouTube said on Tuesday that it had blocked Brand from making money off its platform following the sexual assault allegations. The online platform said in a statement that it had “suspended monetization” on Brand‘s channel for violating its “creator responsibility policy.”

“If a creator’s off-platform behavior harms our users, employees or ecosystem, we take action to protect the community,” YouTube said.

The decision will likely come as a blow to Brand, who has 6.6 million subscribers on YouTube, where he has peddled conspiracy theories about issues like Covid-19 and the war in Ukraine. He has 11.2 million followers on X, formerly Twitter and 1.4 million on Rumble, where his is among the most-followed accounts.

Conservative internet figures have followed Brand’s lead, however, using conspiracy theories to attack the allegations, and have found a largely friendly audience on platforms that have backed away from content moderation.

X owner, Elon Musk, and former Fox News host Tucker Carlson quickly defended to Brand, implying that the allegations were made because of Brand’s critiques of the media.

“Of course. They don’t like competition,” Musk replied to Brand’s video.

Carlson more directly tied the allegations against Brand to his politics.

“Criticize the drug companies, question the war in Ukraine, and you can be pretty sure this is going to happen,” Carlson wrote. 

Neither Carlson nor Musk discussed the allegations in detail. The Times reported that the four women who made sexual assault allegations against Brand in their investigative report did not know each other previously. The reporters spent multiple years interviewing hundreds of people, the report also said.

Some other conservative influencers, including Ian Miles Cheong, added to the pushback, with Cheong equating the accusations against Brand to those made against other high-profile men.

In a statement provided to NBC News after this article was published, Cheong said, "The media has been quick to judge Russell Brand for allegations made against him without due process." 

Brand, once a popular mainstream comedian who had starring roles in movies including “Get Him to the Greek” and “Forgetting Sarah Marshall,” has emerged in recent years as a popular figure in conservative circles for his straight-to-camera videos in which he takes aim at many targets of the far right.

Brand has made criticism of the media a core part of his messaging, noting in his response video that he sets out to “critique, attack, and undermine the news.”

Those critiques have resonated on X, particularly among Musk and his allies, who have also been ardent critics of the media. Musk tweeted at least three times in support of Brand since Friday, posting on Sunday night : “I support Russell Brand. That man is not evil.”

Andrew Tate, a men’s rights influencer who awaits trial in Romania after being indicted on suspicion of human trafficking and rape, posted “Welcome to the club” on X and on Saturday tagged Brand’s account above an image that references “crazy b---- allegations.”

Jake Shields, a former UFC fighter who has pivoted to embrace conservative views online and has close to 400,000 followers on X, posted repeatedly about the allegations over the weekend, including one post that insinuated the Times article contained “false rape allegations” and saying, “It would be nice to see some of these girls face long prison sentences.”

X’s view count metrics, which have been the subject of some skepticism , showed that many of the efforts to cast doubt on the allegations have gained significant traction. The Times’ own thread on X about the investigation received 15.5 million views, according to the platform — a fourth of the views that Brand’s pre-emptive video accrued. 

A search for “Russell Brand” — still a trending topic Monday — surfaced posts that cast doubt on the allegations. None of the first 20 posts in the search results included links to any reporting about the new allegations. 

Instead, the top search results for “Russell Brand” on X suggested Brand is “‘being attacked’” for his views about Covid-19 and Ukraine. Many of the posts also criticize the mainstream and legacy media at large, claiming that the media has referred to Brand as “guilty” and provided no evidence for the allegations against him.

Kat Tenbarge is a tech and culture reporter for NBC News Digital.